From Early Life to Settled Life

Early humans were primarily hunter-gatherers. This term describes their method of obtaining food:

• Hunting: Wild animals (deer, goat, cattle, fish, birds).
• Gathering: Plant produce like fruits, roots, nuts, seeds, leaves, and eggs.

Their survival depended entirely on their environment and their ability to adapt.

Hunter-Gatherer Lifestyle:

• Nomadic: They constantly moved from place to place.
• Resourceful: Possessed vast knowledge of their surroundings, including edible plants, animal behaviour, and seasonal changes.
• Communal: Lived in small groups or bands, sharing resources and tasks.
• Tools: Primarily used tools made of stone, wood, and bone for hunting, cutting, scraping, and digging.

Why Hunter-Gatherers Moved:

Hunter-gatherers were not static; their movements were driven by several factors:

1. Food Availability: If animals moved to another area or plant resources in one area were exhausted, they had to follow.
2. Seasonal Cycles: Different plants bore fruit in different seasons, requiring movement to find seasonal produce.
3. Water Scarcity: In search of water, especially during dry seasons.
4. Following Prey: To follow the movements of animals they hunted.
5. New Resources: To find new sources of stone for making tools.

This nomadic lifestyle was essential for their survival and is a defining characteristic of the Palaeolithic period.

Modern Hunter-Gatherers:

Even today, some communities like the Chenchus and Yanadees in Andhra Pradesh, and the Saora in Odisha, continue a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, providing insights into ancient ways of life.

Archaeologists are the primary source of information about early humans. They study:

• Artefacts: Objects made by humans, such as tools, weapons, pots, ornaments.
• Ecofacts: Natural objects associated with human activity, like animal bones, plant remains, seeds.
• Sites: Places where the remains of things (artefacts, ecofacts) are found.

Key Evidence:

1. Stone Tools: The most common and durable evidence. They tell us about their skills, diet, and activities.
2. Rock Paintings: Found in caves and rock shelters, depicting hunting scenes, animals, and daily life. These paintings offer a direct glimpse into their beliefs, artistic abilities, and environment.
3. Fossilised Bones: Human and animal remains provide information about physical characteristics, diet, and diseases.
4. Plant Remains: Charred grains, seeds, and pollen indicate diet and early agricultural practices.
5. Fire Pits: Evidence of hearths or ash layers indicates the use of fire.

Important Sites:

Archaeological sites are classified based on their function:

• Habitation Sites: Places where people lived for extended periods (e.g., caves, rock shelters).
• Factory Sites: Places where stone tools were made. Often found near sources of good quality stone.
• Habitation-cum-Factory Sites: Places where people lived and also made tools.

Examples of Sites in India:

• Palaeolithic Sites: Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Hunsgi (Karnataka), Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh).
• Neolithic Sites: Burzahom (Kashmir), Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Daojali Hading (Assam), Chirand (Bihar).

Kurnool Caves in Andhra Pradesh are famous for traces of ash, indicating the use of fire. Belum Caves in Kurnool district and Chintakunta in Y.S.R. Kadapa district are significant rock art sites. Budagavi and Velpumadugu in Anantapuramu district are also important rock art sites.

Human history is broadly divided into periods based on the type of tools used. The Stone Age is the longest period.

1. Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age):

• Period: Approximately 2.6 million years BCE to 10,000 BCE.
• Name Origin: 'Palaeo' (old) + 'Lithos' (stone).
• Lifestyle: Predominantly hunter-gatherers.
• Tools: Large, crude, unpolished stone tools (hand axes, choppers, cleavers). Made by chipping stones.
• Key Discoveries: Discovery and control of fire.
• Art: Early rock paintings.
• Environment: Ice Age conditions for much of the period.

2. Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age):

• Period: Approximately 10,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE.
• Name Origin: 'Meso' (middle) + 'Lithos' (stone).
• Lifestyle: Continued hunter-gathering, but with increased efficiency.
• Tools: Smaller, sharper, and more refined stone tools called microliths. These were often attached to handles of bone or wood to make spears, arrows, and saws.
• Environmental Change: Significant climate change around 12,000 years ago led to warmer conditions, development of grasslands, and an increase in herbivorous animals (deer, antelope, goat, sheep).
• Impact: This change led to new hunting grounds and opportunities for domestication.

3. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age):

• Period: Approximately 8,000 BCE to 3,000 BCE (dates vary regionally).
• Name Origin: 'Neo' (new) + 'Lithos' (stone).
• Lifestyle: Marked by the beginning of agriculture and animal domestication, leading to a settled life.
• Tools: Highly polished, finely ground stone tools with sharp cutting edges. Mortars and pestles for grinding grains.
• Key Developments: Farming, herding, pottery, weaving, settled villages, storage of grains.
• Impact: This period is often called the Neolithic Revolution due to the profound changes in human society and economy.

Comparison of Stone Age Tools:

The discovery of fire was a game-changer for early humans, significantly improving their survival and quality of life.

Evidence of Fire:

• Traces of ash found at sites like Kurnool Caves indicate the use of fire.

Uses of Fire:

1. Cooking: Made food (especially meat) easier to chew and digest, and destroyed harmful bacteria.
2. Warmth: Provided heat during cold weather, allowing habitation in colder regions.
3. Light: Illuminated dark caves and shelters, enabling activities after sunset.
4. Protection: Kept wild animals away from settlements.
5. Tool Making: Used to harden wooden tools or to split rocks.

The ability to control fire was a major step in human technological and social development. It allowed for greater safety, comfort, and dietary flexibility.

Rock paintings are invaluable sources of information about early human life, beliefs, and environment.

Characteristics of Rock Paintings:

• Locations: Found in caves and rock shelters, especially in Madhya Pradesh (Bhimbetka) and southern Uttar Pradesh.
• Subjects: Depict wild animals (bison, tigers, deer), hunting scenes, and sometimes human figures.
• Colours: Made from natural pigments like ochre (red, yellow), charcoal (black), and minerals mixed with water or animal fat.
• Tools: Early people used bamboo brushes or their fingers to apply colours.

Significance:

• Daily Life: Show activities like hunting, dancing, and gathering.
• Beliefs: May have had ritualistic or spiritual significance.
• Environment: Provide clues about the animals and plants present in their environment.
• Artistic Expression: Demonstrate the artistic skills and creativity of early humans.

Famous sites in Andhra Pradesh include Belum Caves, Chintakunta, Budagavi, and Velpumadugu. These sites are crucial for understanding the regional variations in early human culture.

Around 12,000 years ago, major environmental changes occurred globally:

• Climate Shift: Transition from cold, glacial conditions to warmer, wetter climates.
• Grassland Development: This led to the growth of vast grasslands in many areas.
• Animal Population Increase: The grasslands supported an increase in herbivorous animals like deer, antelope, goat, and sheep.
• Human Observation: People observed these animals more closely, learning about their food habits and breeding seasons.

Beginning of Domestication:

• Taming Animals: Humans started attracting and taming animals by leaving food for them. The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog.
• Herding: Later, people encouraged animals that were relatively gentle to come near their camps and started herding them, protecting them from other wild animals.
• Source of Resources: These domesticated animals provided milk, meat, and wool, and could also be used to carry loads.

Beginning of Farming:

• Observation of Plants: As grasslands grew, people also observed where edible grains like wheat, barley, and rice grew naturally.
• Collecting Seeds: They started collecting these grains as food.
• Accidental Cultivation: It is believed that accidental scattering of seeds led to the growth of plants, teaching them about cultivation.
• Protection: They learned to protect these plants from animals and birds, and to water them.

The development of agriculture and animal rearing led to a fundamental shift in human lifestyle – from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled farmers and herders.

Why a Settled Life?

• Crop Cultivation: Growing crops requires staying in one place for a long time to sow, tend, harvest, and store.
• Animal Rearing: Herding animals also requires a relatively settled base to manage the flock.

Characteristics of Settled Life:

1. Permanent Dwellings: People began building houses instead of living in caves.

• Pit-houses: Dug into the ground with steps leading into them, providing shelter from cold and heat (e.g., Burzahom).
• Huts: Made of mud and grass.

1. Grain Storage: Surplus grains needed to be stored.

• Methods: Large clay pots, woven baskets, or underground pits.
• Purpose: For food, seeds for the next season, and as gifts.

1. New Tools: Development of tools specific to agriculture.

• Polished Stone Tools: Mortars and pestles for grinding grains.
• Pots: Used for cooking food (grains, rice, wheat, lentils) and storage.

1. Weaving: Learning to weave cloth from plant fibres (like cotton) and animal wool.

Early Villages:

• These settled communities formed the first villages, marking the beginning of a more complex social structure.
• Mehrgarh (present-day Pakistan) is one of the earliest known villages, where people grew wheat and barley, and reared sheep and goats. Evidence of square or rectangular houses with multiple compartments for storage.

Tribal Societies:

• Many early farmers and herders lived in groups called tribes.
• Characteristics of Tribes:
• Lived in small, self-sufficient villages.
• Shared common culture, language, and traditions.
• Relied on farming, hunting, gathering, and fishing.
• Equality among members, with leaders often chosen for wisdom and experience.
• Women often played a significant role in agriculture.

This transition was gradual, and for a long time, people practiced both hunting-gathering and farming/herding.