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The period from the 1870s onwards saw the gradual awakening of political consciousness among Indians. Several factors contributed to this:

• Economic Exploitation:
• British policies led to deindustrialization and impoverishment of Indian artisans.
• Heavy taxation on peasants.
• Drain of wealth from India to Britain (Dadabhai Naoroji's 'Drain Theory').
• Famines were frequent, but British administration showed indifference.
• Administrative Unity:
• British rule, despite its exploitative nature, united India administratively under a single system.
• Introduction of railways, postal services, and telegraph facilitated communication and movement of people, fostering a sense of shared identity.
• Western Education:
• Introduction of English education exposed Indians to Western ideas of liberty, equality, and nationalism.
• Educated Indians started questioning British rule and demanding self-governance.
• Role of Press and Literature:
• Vernacular and English newspapers (e.g., The Hindu, Kesari, Amrita Bazar Patrika) played a crucial role in criticizing British policies and spreading nationalist ideas.
• Literary works (novels, poems) evoked patriotic sentiments.
• Racial Discrimination:
• British considered themselves superior, leading to racial discrimination in administration, public services, and daily life.
• This fueled resentment and a desire for self-respect.
• Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883):
• Proposed allowing Indian judges to try Europeans.
• Fierce opposition from Europeans led to its withdrawal, highlighting racial prejudice and the need for Indians to unite for their rights.
• Vernacular Press Act (1878) & Arms Act (1878):
• Vernacular Press Act: Allowed the government to confiscate assets of newspapers publishing 'objectionable' material. Curtailed freedom of press.
• Arms Act: Made it a criminal offense for Indians to carry arms without a license, while Europeans were exempted. Discriminatory law.

These factors collectively created a fertile ground for the emergence of organized political movements.

Before the Indian National Congress, several regional and national associations emerged to voice Indian grievances.

• Key Objectives:
• Represent Indian interests to the British government.
• Demand administrative reforms.
• Promote public awareness on political issues.
• Notable Associations:
• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870):
• Formed by Mahadev Govind Ranade, Ganesh Vasudev Joshi.
• Aimed to bridge the gap between government and people.
• Worked for peasant rights and administrative reforms.
• The Indian Association (1876):
• Founded by Surendranath Banerjee and Anandamohan Bose in Calcutta.
• Aimed to create a strong public opinion on political questions.
• Advocated for Indianization of civil services and opposed the Arms Act and Vernacular Press Act.
• Organized the All-India National Conference in 1883 and 1885, which was a precursor to the INC.
• Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884):
• Founded by M. Veeraraghavachariar, G. Subramania Iyer, and P. Anandacharlu.
• Focused on local grievances and political education.
• Bombay Presidency Association (1885):
• Founded by Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, and K.T. Telang.
• Aimed to promote public opinion on political matters.

These associations laid the groundwork for a unified national political platform.

The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885 in Bombay.

• Founders:
• A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, played a key role in its formation.
• Prominent Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Dinshaw Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjee, Surendranath Banerjee, M.G. Ranade, Pherozeshah Mehta, and Badruddin Tyabji were instrumental.
• First Session:
• Held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.
• W.C. Bonnerjee was the first President.
• Attended by 72 delegates from across India.
• Initial Objectives (Moderate Phase, 1885-1905):
• To promote friendly relations among nationalist political workers from different parts of the country.
• To develop and consolidate the feeling of national unity irrespective of caste, religion, or province.
• To formulate popular demands and present them before the government.
• To train and organize public opinion in the country.
• Methods of Moderates:
• Believed in constitutional agitation and peaceful means.
• Used petitions, resolutions, meetings, and speeches to influence the government.
• Known as 'political beggars' by later extremists due to their reliance on 'Prayers, Petitions, and Protests' (3Ps).
• Demanded:
• Expansion of legislative councils.
• Indianization of civil services.
• Separation of judiciary from executive.
• Reduction of military expenditure.
• More opportunities for Indians in administration.
• Key Moderate Leaders:
• Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, M.G. Ranade.

Though slow, the Moderates laid the foundation for the national movement by creating a national platform and articulating Indian grievances.

The Partition of Bengal was a pivotal event that marked a shift in the national movement.

• Background:
• Bengal Presidency was geographically vast, including Bengal, Bihar, and parts of Odisha.
• Lord Curzon, the Viceroy, announced the partition in July 1905, effective from October 16, 1905.
• Official Reason: Administrative convenience due to the large size of Bengal.
• Real Reason:
• To divide the Bengalis on religious lines (East Bengal predominantly Muslim, West Bengal predominantly Hindu).
• To weaken the growing nationalist movement in Bengal, which was a hub of political activity.
• Impact and Reaction:
• Sparked widespread outrage and protests across India.
• Led to the launch of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement.
• Swadeshi: Encouraged the use of Indian-made goods and industries.
• Boycott: Called for boycotting British goods, institutions, and services.
• Mass meetings, processions, and picketing of shops selling foreign goods became common.
• Rakhsha Bandhan was celebrated as a symbol of unity between Hindus and Muslims.
• Rise of Extremism (1905-1918):
• The failure of moderate methods to prevent partition led to the rise of a more assertive group within the INC, known as the Extremists.
• They believed in more aggressive methods like mass agitation, boycotts, and passive resistance.
• Key Extremist Leaders (Lal-Bal-Pal):
• Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab)
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra) – Slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!"
• Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal)
• Goals of Extremists:
• Attainment of Swaraj (self-rule), not just administrative reforms.
• Instill pride in Indian culture and history.
• Surat Split (1907):
• Differences between Moderates and Extremists over the methods and goals of the national movement led to a split in the INC at the Surat session.
• Extremists were expelled from the Congress.
• Annulment of Partition (1911):
• Due to persistent protests, the British government annulled the Partition of Bengal.
• The capital of British India was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

The Swadeshi Movement was a significant milestone, introducing new methods of protest and involving a wider section of society.

Mahatma Gandhi's return to India in 1915 from South Africa marked a new phase in the national movement.

• Gandhi's Early Life and South Africa Experience:
• Studied law in England.
• Spent 21 years in South Africa, fighting against racial discrimination and injustice faced by Indians.
• Developed the technique of Satyagraha (truth force or passive resistance).
• Satyagraha Principles:
• Emphasized truth and non-violence.
• A Satyagrahi would resist injustice without resorting to violence or hatred.
• Believed in converting the oppressor through moral persuasion.
• Early Satyagraha Movements in India:
• Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
• Against the 'Tinkathia' system, where indigo planters forced peasants to grow indigo on 3/20th of their land.
• First civil disobedience movement in India.
• Successful in getting the system abolished and compensation for peasants.
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918):
• Against mill owners who refused to pay higher wages to textile workers.
• Gandhi used hunger strike as a tool.
• Successful in securing a wage hike.
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
• Against the British demand for full land revenue despite crop failure due to plague and famine.
• Gandhi supported peasants' demand for remission of land revenue.
• Successful, as the government agreed to suspend revenue collection.
• Rowlatt Act (1919):
• Passed by the Imperial Legislative Council, it authorized the British government to imprison any person without trial.
• Called the 'Black Act' by Indians.
• Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal (strike) against it.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):
• On Baisakhi day, a large crowd gathered peacefully in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, to protest against the Rowlatt Act and the arrest of nationalist leaders.
• General Dyer ordered his troops to fire on the unarmed crowd, killing hundreds.
• Deeply shocked the nation and intensified the demand for Swaraj.
• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.

Gandhi's leadership and the brutality of the Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre propelled the national movement into a mass struggle.

Following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Rowlatt Act, Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation Movement.

• Causes:
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and the British government's failure to punish the culprits.
• Rowlatt Act and its repressive measures.
• Khilafat Movement: Indian Muslims were agitated by the harsh treatment of the Ottoman Sultan (Caliph) by the British after World War I. Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims.
• Demand for Swaraj.
• Objectives:
• Attainment of Swaraj.
• Redressal of Punjab wrongs (Jallianwala Bagh).
• Redressal of Khilafat wrongs.
• Programme of Action:
• Boycott:
• Boycott of British goods, government schools, colleges, law courts, and legislative councils.
• Renunciation of government titles and honors.
• Boycott of foreign cloth (bonfires of foreign cloth).
• Promotion of Swadeshi:
• Establishment of national schools and colleges (e.g., Jamia Millia Islamia, Kashi Vidyapeeth).
• Promotion of Khadi and hand-spinning.
• Establishment of Panchayat courts.
• Participation:
• Widespread participation from all sections of society: students, teachers, lawyers, peasants, workers, women.
• Hindu-Muslim unity was at its peak.
• Withdrawal of Movement (1922):
• The movement was abruptly called off by Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident (February 1922).
• A violent mob set fire to a police station in Chauri Chaura (Uttar Pradesh), killing several policemen.
• Gandhi, a staunch believer in non-violence, felt the movement was turning violent and called for its suspension.

Despite its abrupt end, the Non-Cooperation Movement was a watershed moment, transforming the national movement into a mass movement and demonstrating the power of non-violent resistance.

The period after the Non-Cooperation Movement saw renewed calls for complete independence.

Simon Commission (1927)

• An all-British commission sent to India to review the working of the Indian constitution.
• No Indian members, leading to widespread protests and the slogan "Simon Go Back!"
• Lala Lajpat Rai died during a protest against the commission.

Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) - 1929

• The Lahore Session of the INC (1929), under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, declared "Purna Swaraj" as the ultimate goal.
• January 26, 1930, was declared as "Independence Day" and celebrated across India.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

• Causes:
• Demand for Purna Swaraj.
• British government's refusal to grant dominion status.
• Economic depression and rising unemployment.
• Dandi March / Salt Satyagraha (March 12, 1930):
• Gandhi, along with 78 followers, marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (Gujarat) to break the salt law.
• British had a monopoly on salt production and taxed it heavily, affecting the poorest.
• Breaking the salt law was a symbolic act of defiance against unjust British laws.
• Programme of Action:
• Breaking of salt laws.
• Boycott of foreign cloth, liquor shops.
• Non-payment of taxes.
• Resignation from government posts.
• Picketing of government offices.
• Impact:
• Massive participation, especially by women.
• Spread to various parts of India (e.g., Forest Satyagraha in Maharashtra, No-tax campaigns in UP).
• British government responded with severe repression.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931):
• Gandhi agreed to suspend the movement.
• British agreed to release political prisoners and allow peaceful picketing.
• Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference in London, but it failed to yield significant results.
• Resumption and Decline:
• Gandhi resumed the movement after returning, but it lost momentum and was officially suspended in 1934.

Quit India Movement (1942)

• Background:
• World War II was raging, and Britain was facing severe pressure.
• Failure of the Cripps Mission (1942), which offered dominion status after the war but not immediate independence.
• Growing public discontent and fear of Japanese invasion.
• Call to Action:
• The INC, under Gandhi's leadership, passed the 'Quit India' resolution in Bombay on August 8, 1942.
• Gandhi gave the call: "Do or Die" (Karo ya Maro).
• Programme:
• Demanded immediate end to British rule.
• Called for mass civil disobedience.
• Impact:
• British immediately arrested Gandhi and other top leaders.
• Led to spontaneous mass uprising across India, without central leadership.
• Strikes, demonstrations, sabotage of communication lines, attacks on government buildings.
• British responded with brutal repression, using military force.
• Formation of parallel governments in some areas (e.g., Ballia, Satara).
• Significance:
• Demonstrated the deep desire for independence among Indians.
• Convinced the British that they could no longer hold India against its will.
• The movement, though suppressed, weakened the British hold and paved the way for independence.

The final years of British rule were marked by intense political negotiations and the tragic partition of India.

Indian National Army (INA) / Azad Hind Fauj

• Formed by Mohan Singh in 1942, revived by Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943.
• Comprised Indian prisoners of war captured by Japan in Southeast Asia.
• Aimed to liberate India with Japanese support during WWII.
• Bose gave the call "Jai Hind" and "Give me blood and I will give you freedom."
• Though militarily unsuccessful, INA trials in 1945 galvanized nationalist sentiments.

Post-War Developments

• Cabinet Mission (1946):
• Sent by the British government to negotiate the transfer of power.
• Proposed a federal structure for India and a constituent assembly to draft a constitution.
• Failed to reconcile the differences between Congress and the Muslim League regarding the future of India.
• Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946):
• Called by the Muslim League to press for the creation of Pakistan.
• Led to widespread communal riots, especially in Calcutta, marking the beginning of intense communal violence.

Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947)

• Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy, proposed the partition of India into two independent states: India and Pakistan.
• Accepted by both Congress and the Muslim League, albeit reluctantly by Congress, due to the escalating communal violence.
• Provided for the transfer of power on August 15, 1947.

Indian Independence Act, 1947

• Passed by the British Parliament, it formally ended British rule.
• Created two independent dominions: India and Pakistan.
• Abolished the office of the Viceroy and made the Governor-General the constitutional head.
• Provided for the partition of Bengal and Punjab.
• Princely states were given the option to accede to either India or Pakistan or remain independent (though most joined India).

Independence and Partition (August 15, 1947)

• India achieved independence, but it came at the cost of partition.
• Massive communal violence and displacement of millions of people across the newly drawn borders.
• One of the largest migrations in human history.

The journey from 1870s to 1947 was a complex struggle, marked by diverse ideologies, mass movements, and ultimately, the birth of a free but divided nation.