Life Processes

Life Processes Kya Hote Hain?

• Life Processes woh essential functions hain jo living organisms mein hote hain to maintain their life aur survive karne ke liye.
• Yeh processes tab bhi chalte rehte hain jab organism rest kar raha ho ya so raha ho.
• Examples: Nutrition, Respiration, Transportation, Excretion, Growth, Reproduction.

Maintenance Functions Ki Zaroorat

• Organisms ko energy chahiye to perform daily activities (walking, running, studying).
• Even when not active, body ke andar ke systems (like heartbeat, digestion) ko chalane ke liye energy lagti hai.
• Body ke orderly structure ko maintain karne ke liye bhi energy aur materials ki zaroorat hoti hai.
• Raw materials: Growth, development, protein synthesis aur other essential substances ke liye bahar se materials (food) ki zaroorat hoti hai.

Nutrition Kya Hai?

• Nutrition woh process hai jismein organism food intake karta hai aur usko energy aur growth ke liye utilize karta hai.
• Food energy ka primary source hai.

Types of Nutrition

1. Autotrophic Nutrition:

• Organisms jo apna food khud banate hain inorganic sources (CO₂, H₂O) se.
• Examples: Green plants, some bacteria.
• Process: Photosynthesis.

1. Heterotrophic Nutrition:

• Organisms jo apna food dusre organisms se obtain karte hain (directly or indirectly).
• Complex substances ko break down karke simple forms mein convert karte hain.
• Examples: Animals, fungi.
• Types:
• Saprotrophic: Dead aur decaying matter se nutrition (e.g., fungi, bread moulds).
• Parasitic: Host organism se nutrition without killing it (e.g., Cuscuta, ticks, leeches).
• Holozoic: Food ko ingest karna, digest karna, absorb karna aur undigested ko egest karna (e.g., humans, Amoeba).

Photosynthesis (Autotrophic Nutrition)

• Woh process jismein green plants sunlight energy ko chemical energy mein convert karte hain.
• Equation:

$$6CO_2 + 6H_2O \xrightarrow{\text{Sunlight, Chlorophyll}} C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$$

• Raw Materials:
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Stomata through air se absorb hota hai.
• Water (H₂O): Roots se absorb hota hai, xylem vessels through transport hota hai.
• Chlorophyll: Green pigment jo chloroplasts mein present hota hai, sunlight ko trap karta hai.
• Sunlight: Energy source.
• Main Events:

1. Chlorophyll dwara light energy ka absorption.
2. Light energy ka chemical energy mein conversion aur water molecules ka splitting (H₂ aur O₂ mein).
3. Carbon dioxide ka carbohydrates mein reduction.

• Site: Chloroplasts (mainly leaf cells mein).
• By-products: Oxygen (O₂) aur Water (H₂O).
• Storage: Carbohydrates (glucose) ko starch ke form mein store karte hain plants. Humans mein glycogen ke form mein store hota hai.

Stomata

• Leaves ki surface par tiny pores hote hain.
• Functions:
• Gaseous exchange (CO₂ intake, O₂ release) for photosynthesis.
• Transpiration (excess water ka vapour form mein release).
• Structure: Guard cells se surrounded hote hain jo pore ko open aur close karte hain.
• Opening: Jab guard cells mein water enter karta hai, woh swell hote hain aur pore open ho jaata hai.
• Closing: Jab guard cells se water exit karta hai, woh shrink hote hain aur pore close ho jaata hai.

Activity 5.1: Chlorophyll is essential for Photosynthesis

• Aim: Show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
• Procedure:

1. Variegated leaf (e.g., Croton) ko dark room mein 3 din rakho to destarch it.
2. Phir usko 6 ghante ke liye sunlight mein rakho.
3. Leaf ko pluck karke boiling water mein dip karo, phir alcohol mein boil karo (chlorophyll remove karne ke liye).
4. Leaf ko iodine solution mein dip karo.

• Observation: Leaf ke green parts blue-black ho jaate hain (starch ki presence), non-green parts brown rehte hain.
• Conclusion: Chlorophyll starch formation (photosynthesis) ke liye essential hai.

Activity 5.2: CO₂ is essential for Photosynthesis

• Aim: Show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
• Procedure:

1. Do equal sized potted plants lo.
2. Dono ko 3 din dark room mein rakho.
3. Ek plant ko bell jar (A) mein rakho jiske andar watch glass mein KOH (Potassium Hydroxide) ho (KOH CO₂ absorb karta hai).
4. Dusre plant ko bell jar (B) mein rakho without KOH.
5. Dono bell jars ko airtight seal karo aur 2 ghante sunlight mein rakho.
6. Har plant se ek leaf lekar starch test perform karo.

• Observation: Plant B ka leaf blue-black ho jaata hai, jabki Plant A ka leaf brown rehta hai.
• Conclusion: Carbon dioxide starch formation (photosynthesis) ke liye essential hai.

Nutrition in Amoeba (Holozoic)

• Unicellular organism.
• Process:

1. Ingestion: Food particle ko pseudopodia (false feet) se surround karta hai, food vacuole banata hai.
2. Digestion: Food vacuole ke andar complex substances simple ones mein break hote hain by enzymes.
3. Absorption: Digested food cytoplasm mein diffuse ho jaata hai.
4. Assimilation: Absorbed food growth aur energy ke liye use hota hai.
5. Egestion: Undigested material cell surface se bahar nikal diya jaata hai.

Nutrition in Paramoecium

• Unicellular organism with definite shape.
• Food intake specific spot par hota hai.
• Cilia (hair-like structures) ki movement se food particle ko oral groove tak move karte hain.

Human Alimentary Canal

• Ek long tube jo mouth se anus tak extend karti hai.
• Different parts specialized hote hain for different functions.

Digestion Process Steps

1. Mouth:

• Ingestion: Food intake.
• Mechanical Digestion: Teeth food ko chew karte hain (mastication).
• Chemical Digestion: Saliva (salivary glands se release) mein salivary amylase enzyme hota hai jo starch ko simple sugars (maltose) mein break karta hai.
• Tongue food ko mix karta hai aur swallow karne mein help karta hai.

1. Pharynx: Common passage for food and air.

1. Oesophagus (Food Pipe):

• Food ko mouth se stomach tak peristaltic movements (muscles ka rhythmic contraction aur relaxation) se push karta hai.
• No digestion occurs here.

1. Stomach:

• J-shaped muscular organ.
• Gastric Glands: Release gastric juice containing:
• HCl (Hydrochloric Acid): Food ko acidic banata hai, harmful bacteria ko kill karta hai, aur pepsin enzyme ko activate karta hai.
• Pepsin: Protein-digesting enzyme (acidic medium mein kaam karta hai).
• Mucus: Stomach wall ko HCl ke corrosive action se protect karta hai.
• Food 3-4 ghante tak stomach mein rehta hai, churn hota hai aur gastric juices se mix hota hai.

1. Small Intestine:

• Longest part of alimentary canal (approx. 6.5 meters in adults).
• Site of complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
• Site of absorption of digested food.
• Receives secretions from:
• Liver: Bile juice produce karta hai. Bile juice fat globules ko emulsify karta hai (large fat droplets ko smaller ones mein break karta hai) to increase surface area for enzyme action. Bile alkaline hota hai aur food ko acidic se alkaline banata hai for pancreatic enzymes.
• Pancreas: Pancreatic juice release karta hai containing:
• Amylase: Starch ko digest karta hai.
• Trypsin: Proteins ko digest karta hai.
• Lipase: Emulsified fats ko digest karta hai.
• Intestinal Glands: Small intestine ki walls mein intestinal juice hota hai jo final digestion complete karta hai:
• Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Glucose
• Proteins $\rightarrow$ Amino Acids
• Fats $\rightarrow$ Fatty Acids and Glycerol
• Absorption: Inner lining mein villi (finger-like projections) hote hain jo surface area increase karte hain absorption ke liye. Villi mein extensive blood vessels hote hain jo absorbed food ko body cells tak transport karte hain.

1. Large Intestine:

• Undigested food small intestine se large intestine mein enter karta hai.
• Main function water absorption from undigested food.
• No digestion occurs here.

1. Rectum: Stores undigested waste temporarily.

1. Anus: Undigested waste (faeces) ko body se egestion process through remove karta hai.

Respiration Kya Hai?

• Woh process jismein food (glucose) ko break down karke energy release ki jaati hai (ATP ke form mein).
• Yeh energy various cellular activities ke liye use hoti hai.

Breakdown of Glucose (First Step)

• Sabhi types of respiration mein, first step common hai:
• Glucose (6-carbon molecule) $\rightarrow$ Pyruvate (3-carbon molecule).
• Yeh process cytoplasm mein hota hai.

Types of Respiration

1. Aerobic Respiration:

• Oxygen ki presence mein hota hai.
• Site: Mitochondria.
• Products: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Water (H₂O), aur Large amount of energy (38 ATP).
• Equation:

$$C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{Energy (38 ATP)}$$

• Efficiency: More efficient, more energy released.
• Occurs in: Most organisms (humans, animals, plants).

1. Anaerobic Respiration:

• Oxygen ki absence mein hota hai.
• Site: Cytoplasm.
• Products:
• In Yeast (Fermentation): Ethanol (2-carbon), Carbon dioxide (CO₂), aur Less energy (2 ATP).
• Used in alcohol and bread making.
• In Muscle Cells (during strenuous exercise): Lactic Acid (3-carbon), aur Less energy (2 ATP).
• Lactic acid accumulation causes muscle cramps.
• Efficiency: Less efficient, less energy released.
• Occurs in: Yeast, some bacteria, human muscle cells (temporarily).

Pathways of Glucose Breakdown

• Glucose (6C)
• (In Cytoplasm)
• Pyruvate (3C) + Energy
• (Absence of Oxygen - in Yeast): Ethanol + CO₂ + Energy
• (Absence of Oxygen - in Muscle Cells): Lactic Acid + Energy
• (Presence of Oxygen - in Mitochondria): CO₂ + H₂O + Energy

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

• Energy currency of the cell.
• Energy released during respiration is stored in ATP molecules.
• ATP is used to power various cellular activities (muscle contraction, protein synthesis, nerve impulse transmission).
• Formation: ADP + Pi $\rightarrow$ ATP (using energy from respiration).
• Energy Release: ATP $\rightarrow$ ADP + Pi + Energy (when needed).

Activity 5.4: CO₂ in Exhaled Air

• Aim: Show that exhaled air contains CO₂.
• Procedure:

1. Lime water (calcium hydroxide solution) lo.
2. Ek baar syringe/pichkari se normal air pass karo.
3. Dusri baar exhaled air ko tube se lime water mein pass karo.

• Observation: Normal air se lime water cloudy nahi hota. Exhaled air se lime water cloudy (milky) ho jaata hai.
• Conclusion: Exhaled air mein carbon dioxide hoti hai, jo lime water ko milky kar deti hai (Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ $\rightarrow$ CaCO₃ $\downarrow$ + H₂O).

Activity 5.5: Fermentation by Yeast

• Aim: Demonstrate fermentation and CO₂ production by yeast.
• Procedure:

1. Glucose solution mein yeast powder mix karo.
2. Is solution ko test tube mein lo aur cork laga do, jismein delivery tube ho.
3. Delivery tube ka free end dusre test tube mein lime water mein dip karo.
4. Setup ko warm place par rakho.

• Observation: Lime water milky ho jaata hai, aur glucose solution mein bubbles dikhte hain.
• Conclusion: Yeast anaerobic respiration (fermentation) karta hai, jismein CO₂ release hoti hai.

Components of Human Respiratory System

1. Nasal Passage: Air enter karta hai, hair aur mucus dust particles ko filter karte hain, air warm aur moist ho jaati hai.
2. Pharynx: Common passage for food and air.
3. Larynx (Voice Box): Sound production.
4. Trachea (Windpipe):

• Air ko larynx se lungs tak carry karta hai.
• Rings of cartilage se supported hota hai jo isko collapse hone se prevent karte hain.

1. Bronchi: Trachea further divide hoke primary bronchi banata hai jo har lung mein enter karte hain.
2. Bronchioles: Bronchi further divide hoke finer tubes banate hain.
3. Alveoli (Air Sacs):

• Bronchioles ke ends par balloon-like structures.
• Site of gaseous exchange (O₂ aur CO₂).
• Extremely thin walls aur rich blood supply (capillaries) hoti hai.
• Large surface area provide karte hain for efficient gas exchange.

1. Lungs: Primary respiratory organs, chest cavity mein present hote hain.
2. Diaphragm: Muscular partition jo chest cavity aur abdominal cavity ko separate karta hai, breathing mein essential role play karta hai.

Mechanism of Breathing

• Inhalation (Saans Lena):
• Diaphragm contract karta hai aur niche move karta hai.
• Rib muscles contract karte hain aur ribs upar aur bahar move karte hain.
• Chest cavity ka volume increase hota hai.
• Lungs mein air pressure decrease hota hai.
• Atmospheric air lungs mein rush karti hai.
• Exhalation (Saans Chhodna):
• Diaphragm relax karta hai aur upar move karta hai.
• Rib muscles relax karte hain aur ribs niche aur andar move karte hain.
• Chest cavity ka volume decrease hota hai.
• Lungs mein air pressure increase hota hai.
• Air lungs se bahar push ho jaati hai.

Gaseous Exchange in Alveoli

• Inhaled air (rich in O₂) alveoli mein pahunchti hai.
• Alveoli ki walls thin hoti hain aur blood capillaries se surrounded hoti hain.
• Oxygen alveoli se blood mein diffuse karta hai.
• Blood mein present Carbon dioxide (body cells se aaya hua) blood se alveoli mein diffuse karta hai.
• Yeh exchange concentration gradient ke basis par hota hai.

Terrestrial vs. Aquatic Organisms

• Terrestrial: Atmosphere se oxygen lete hain, oxygen concentration high hoti hai, so breathing rate slow hoti hai.
• Aquatic: Water mein dissolved oxygen lete hain, dissolved oxygen concentration low hoti hai, so breathing rate fast hoti hai (e.g., fish).

Respiration in Plants

• Plants mein gaseous exchange stomata (leaves), lenticels (stems), aur general root surface se hota hai.
• Har part independent rehta hai, gases ka transport ek part se dusre part tak nahi hota.
• Day time mein photosynthesis bhi hota hai, so CO₂ released by respiration is used for photosynthesis. Net O₂ release hota hai.
• Night time mein sirf respiration hota hai, so net CO₂ release hota hai.

Circulatory System

• Human body mein transport system ko circulatory system kehte hain.
• Components: Heart, Blood, Blood Vessels.
• Functions: Oxygen, nutrients, hormones, waste products ko transport karna.

Blood

• Fluid connective tissue.
• Components:
• Plasma: Fluid matrix, food, CO₂, nitrogenous wastes ko dissolved form mein transport karta hai.
• RBCs (Red Blood Cells): Haemoglobin contain karte hain jo oxygen transport karta hai.
• WBCs (White Blood Cells): Body ko infection se protect karte hain.
• Platelets: Blood clotting mein help karte hain.

Heart (Pumping Organ)

• Muscular organ, fist size ka hota hai.
• Four chambers:
• Upper chambers: Left Atrium, Right Atrium.
• Lower chambers: Left Ventricle, Right Ventricle.
• Septum: Muscular wall jo oxygenated aur deoxygenated blood ko mix hone se prevent karti hai.

Blood Vessels

1. Arteries:

• Oxygenated blood ko heart se body parts tak carry karti hain (Pulmonary artery exception).
• Thick, elastic walls hoti hain to withstand high pressure.
• Valves absent.

1. Veins:

• Deoxygenated blood ko body parts se heart tak carry karti hain (Pulmonary vein exception).
• Thin walls hoti hain.
• Valves present hote hain to prevent backflow of blood.

1. Capillaries:

• Extremely thin-walled, one-cell thick vessels.
• Arteries aur veins ko connect karti hain.
• Site of exchange of gases, nutrients, waste products between blood and body cells.

Double Circulation

• Blood heart se do baar pass hota hai ek complete cycle mein.
• Necessity: Oxygenated aur deoxygenated blood ko mix hone se prevent karta hai, efficient oxygen supply ensure karta hai.
• Pathways:

1. Pulmonary Circulation: Heart $\rightarrow$ Lungs $\rightarrow$ Heart (for oxygenation).

• Right ventricle $\rightarrow$ Pulmonary artery $\rightarrow$ Lungs $\rightarrow$ Pulmonary vein $\rightarrow$ Left atrium.

1. Systemic Circulation: Heart $\rightarrow$ Body parts $\rightarrow$ Heart (for distribution).

• Left ventricle $\rightarrow$ Aorta $\rightarrow$ Body parts $\rightarrow$ Vena Cava $\rightarrow$ Right atrium.

Blood Pressure

• Woh force jo blood vessel ki walls par exert karta hai.
• Systolic Pressure: Contraction (systole) ke time pressure (approx. 120 mmHg).
• Diastolic Pressure: Relaxation (diastole) ke time pressure (approx. 80 mmHg).
• Measured by Sphygmomanometer.
• Hypertension (High BP): Can lead to rupture of arteries and internal bleeding.

Lymph (Tissue Fluid)

• Blood capillaries se kuch plasma, proteins, blood cells escape karke intercellular spaces mein aa jaate hain, jisse lymph banta hai.
• Composition: Colourless fluid, less protein than plasma.
• Functions:
• Digested fats ko absorb karta hai small intestine se.
• Excess fluid ko intercellular spaces se blood mein return karta hai.
• Immunity mein help karta hai (lymphocytes contain karta hai).

Activity 5.7: Haemoglobin Content

• Aim: Understand haemoglobin's role.
• Observation: Haemoglobin ki deficiency se anaemia ho sakta hai, jisse fatigue, weakness hoti hai kyunki oxygen carrying capacity kam ho jaati hai.

Vascular Tissues

• Plants mein transportation ke liye specialized vascular tissues hote hain.
• Xylem: Water aur minerals transport karta hai.
• Phloem: Food (products of photosynthesis) transport karta hai.

Transport of Water and Minerals (Xylem)

• Absorption: Roots soil se water aur dissolved minerals absorb karte hain.
• Path: Roots $\rightarrow$ Stem $\rightarrow$ Leaves.
• Driving Forces:

1. Root Pressure: Roots mein cells active transport se ions absorb karte hain, jisse water potential gradient banta hai aur water root xylem mein enter karta hai. Yeh pressure water ko upar push karta hai, especially at night.
2. Transpiration Pull: Main driving force.

• Transpiration: Leaves se water ka vapour form mein loss through stomata.
• Jab water evaporates hota hai, toh leaf cells mein suction pull create hota hai.
• Yeh pull water ko xylem vessels mein upar ki taraf khinchta hai, ek continuous water column maintain karta hai.
• Cohesion (water molecules ke beech attraction) aur adhesion (water molecules aur xylem walls ke beech attraction) water column ko break hone se prevent karte hain.
• Unidirectional: Water hamesha roots se leaves ki taraf move karta hai.

Transport of Food (Phloem)

• Process: Translocation.
• Substances: Products of photosynthesis (sugars, amino acids).
• Path: Leaves (source) $\rightarrow$ Storage organs (roots, fruits) ya growing regions (sink).
• Mechanism:

1. Food (sucrose) source cells se phloem sieve tubes mein active transport se load hota hai.
2. Isse sieve tubes mein osmotic pressure increase hota hai.
3. Water from adjacent xylem moves into sieve tubes by osmosis.
4. High pressure ki wajah se food solution high pressure area se low pressure area (sink) ki taraf move karta hai.
5. Sink par, food unload hota hai aur water xylem mein return kar jaata hai.

• Bidirectional: Food ka transport upar aur niche dono directions mein ho sakta hai, depending on source and sink.

Activity 5.8: Transpiration in Plants

• Aim: Demonstrate transpiration.
• Procedure:

1. Ek potted plant ko polythene bag se cover karo aur mouth ko tie kar do.
2. Sunlight mein rakho.

• Observation: Polythene bag ke andar water droplets dikhenge.
• Conclusion: Plants transpiration through water vapour release karte hain.

Excretion Kya Hai?

• Harmful metabolic waste products ko body se remove karne ka biological process.
• Main waste products: Nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid), excess salts, water.

Human Excretory System

• Components:

1. Kidneys (Pair):

• Bean-shaped organs, abdomen mein backbone ke dono sides par located.
• Blood ko filter karte hain, urine produce karte hain.
• Each kidney mein millions of nephrons hote hain (functional units).

1. Ureters (Pair):

• Tubes jo urine ko kidneys se urinary bladder tak carry karte hain.

1. Urinary Bladder:

• Muscular sac jo urine ko temporarily store karta hai.

1. Urethra:

• Tube jo urine ko urinary bladder se body se bahar release karta hai.

Structure and Function of Nephron

• Nephron ke parts:

1. Glomerulus:

• A cluster of capillaries (blood vessels) within Bowman's capsule.
• Ultrafiltration ka site: Blood se water, salts, glucose, amino acids, urea filter hote hain.
• Large proteins aur blood cells filter nahi hote.

1. Bowman's Capsule:

• Cup-shaped structure jo glomerulus ko enclose karta hai.
• Filtered fluid (glomerular filtrate) collect karta hai.

1. Renal Tubule (Tubular Part):

• Long, coiled tube jo Bowman's capsule se extend karta hai.
• Selective Reabsorption: Useful substances (glucose, amino acids, most water, some salts) blood mein reabsorb ho jaate hain.
• Tubular Secretion: Waste products (like excess ions, some drugs) blood se tubule mein actively secrete hote hain.

1. Collecting Duct:

• Several nephrons ke tubules ismein drain hote hain.
• Urine collect karta hai aur ureter mein pass karta hai.

Urine Formation Steps

1. Glomerular Filtration: Blood glomerulus mein filter hota hai, filtrate Bowman's capsule mein collect hota hai.
2. Tubular Reabsorption: Essential substances filtrate se blood mein reabsorb hote hain.
3. Tubular Secretion: Waste products blood se tubule mein secrete hote hain.
4. Concentration of Urine: Collecting duct mein water reabsorption se urine concentrate hota hai.

Regulation of Urine Output

• Amount of urine formed depends on:
• Amount of excess water in the body.
• Amount of dissolved waste to be excreted.
• ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone): Water reabsorption ko control karta hai. Agar body mein water kam hai, ADH release hota hai aur more water reabsorb hota hai, urine concentrated banta hai.

Artificial Kidney (Dialysis)

• Kidney failure ke case mein use hota hai.
• Blood ko body se nikal kar dialysing unit mein pass kiya jaata hai.
• Dialysing fluid ka composition blood plasma jaisa hota hai, except nitrogenous wastes.
• Waste products (urea) diffusion se blood se dialysing fluid mein move karte hain.
• Clean blood ko wapas patient ki body mein pump kiya jaata hai.
• Life-saving procedure hai, but temporary solution.

Plants mein Excretion Strategies

• Plants mein animals ki tarah specialized excretory organs nahi hote.
• Unki metabolic rate slow hoti hai aur waste products bhi kam hote hain.
• Methods:

1. Gaseous Wastes: Photosynthesis se O₂ aur respiration se CO₂ ko stomata aur lenticels se release karte hain.
2. Excess Water: Transpiration through remove karte hain.
3. Solid/Liquid Wastes:

• Storage in Vacuoles: Many waste products cellular vacuoles mein store hote hain.
• Falling Leaves: Old leaves mein waste products accumulate hote hain, aur jab leaves girte hain, toh wastes bhi remove ho jaate hain.
• Bark Peeling: Bark mein bhi wastes store hote hain, jo bark ke peel off hone par remove hote hain.
• Gums and Resins: Kuch waste products gums, resins (especially in old xylem) ke form mein store hote hain.
• Excretion into Soil: Kuch waste products roots through surrounding soil mein release hote hain.