The Age of Industrialisation

Industrialisation ka matlab sirf factories ka aana nahi hai. Is chapter mein hum iske complexities ko samjhenge.

• Industrialisation ki Aam Dharna:
• Aksar log industrialisation ko factories, machines, aur rapid technological change se jodte hain.
• Early 20th century mein, music books aur trade magazines mein machines aur technology ko progress aur modernity ka symbol dikhaya gaya.
• Example: E.T. Paull ki 'Dawn of the Century' cover par angel of progress ko railway, camera, machines ke saath dikhaya gaya.
• 'Two Magicians' painting mein modern mechanic ko Aladdin se superior dikhaya gaya, jo West aur modernity ko represent karta hai.

• Is Dharna ki Chunautiyan:
• Kya industrialisation hamesha rapid technological development par based hota hai?
• Kya continuous mechanisation ko glorify karna sahi hai?
• Industrialisation ne logon ki life ko kaise affect kiya?
• Ye chapter in sawalon ke jawab deta hai, dikhata hai ki industrialisation ka process linear aur simple nahi tha.

Factory system ke aane se pehle bhi large-scale industrial production hota tha, jise 'proto-industrialisation' kehte hain.

• Proto-Industrialisation (17th-18th Century):
• Definition: Factory system se pehle ka period jahan large-scale production gharon mein hota tha, international market ke liye.
• Merchants ka Role:
• Towns se merchants countryside mein jaate the.
• Peasants aur artisans ko advance money dete the.
• Unse international market ke liye goods produce karwate the.
• Countryside ko Kyun Chuna?
• Towns mein Guilds: Urban crafts aur trade guilds powerful the. Ye associations production control karte the, competition regulate karte the, aur new merchants ki entry restrict karte the.
• Rulers ne guilds ko monopoly rights diye the.
• Countryside mein Fayde: Poor peasants aur artisans ke paas alternative income sources ki kami thi (open fields disappear ho rahe the, commons enclose ho rahe the).
• Merchants ke liye kaam karke unhe extra income milti thi aur family labour ka fuller use hota tha.
• Production Process (Example: Cloth):
• Merchant wool kharidta tha.
• Spinners ko deta tha yarn banane ke liye.
• Yarn weavers, fullers, dyers ke paas jaata tha.
• Finishing London mein hoti thi, phir export.
• London ek finishing centre ban gaya.
• Ye system merchants dwara controlled tha, aur goods families dwara gharon mein banaye jaate the, not in factories.

• Factories ka Aana:
• England mein earliest factories 1730s mein aayi.
• Late 18th century mein factories ki sankhya badhi.
• Cotton new era ka pehla symbol bana.
• 1760 mein Britain 2.5 million pounds raw cotton import karta tha.
• 1787 tak ye 22 million pounds ho gaya.
• Inventions: 18th century mein kai inventions ne production process ko efficient banaya (carding, twisting, spinning, rolling).
• Output per worker badha, stronger threads bane.
• Richard Arkwright aur Cotton Mill:
• Richard Arkwright ne cotton mill banaya.
• Costly machines ko mill mein install kiya gaya.
• Saare processes ek roof ke neeche aa gaye, jisse supervision, quality control, aur labour regulation easy ho gaya.
• Early 19th century tak factories English landscape ka intimate part ban gayi.

Industrialisation ka process uniform ya rapid nahi tha; isme kai complexities thi.

• Industrialisation ki Gati (Pace):
• Dynamic Industries:
• First phase (1840s tak): Cotton leading sector tha.
• Second phase (1840s ke baad): Iron aur Steel industry ne lead kiya, railways ke expansion se demand badhi.
• 1873 tak Britain ka iron aur steel export £77 million tha, cotton se double.
• Traditional Industries ka Mahatva:
• New industries traditional industries ko easily displace nahi kar payi.
• 19th century ke end tak bhi, total workforce ka 20% se kam hi technologically advanced sectors mein employed tha.
• Textiles mein bhi, large portion of output factories ke bahar, domestic units mein produce hota tha.
• Traditional Industries mein Badlav:
• Ye industries stagnant nahi thi; small innovations se growth hota raha (e.g., food processing, building, pottery).
• Technological Changes ki Dheemi Gati:
• New technology expensive thi, aur industrialists cautious the.
• Machines aksar kharab ho jaati thi aur repair costly tha.
• Inventors ke claims ke barabar effective nahi thi.
• Steam Engine ka Example: James Watt ne 1781 mein steam engine improve kiya, par buyers milne mein saalon lage.
• 19th century ke beginning mein England mein sirf 321 steam engines the.
• Mid-19th century mein typical worker machine operator nahi, balki traditional craftsperson aur labourer tha.

• Hand Labour aur Steam Power:
• Britain mein Labour ki Abundance: Victorian Britain mein human labour ki kami nahi thi.
• Poor peasants aur vagrants jobs ki talash mein cities aate the.
• Labour zyada hone se wages low the.
• Industrialists ko labour shortage ya high wage costs ki problem nahi thi, isliye machines mein invest karne ki zaroorat kam lagi.
• Seasonal Demand:
• Kai industries mein demand seasonal thi (e.g., gas works, breweries, book-binders).
• Seasonal demand ke liye hand labour prefer kiya jaata tha, workers ko season ke liye hire karte the.
• Handmade Products ki Demand:
• Machines uniform, standardised goods banati thi, mass market ke liye.
• Market mein aksar intricate designs aur specific shapes wale goods ki demand thi, jo sirf hand labour se ban sakte the (e.g., 500 varieties of hammers).
• Victorian Britain mein upper classes handmade products prefer karte the, jo refinement aur class ka symbol the. Ye better finished aur individually designed hote the.
• Machine-made goods aksar colonies mein export hote the.
• Labour Shortage vs. Abundance: Labour shortage wale countries (jaise 19th century America) mein industrialists machines use karne ke liye keen the, par Britain mein aisa nahi tha.

Industrialisation ne workers ki life ko deeply affect kiya, jisme job insecurity, low wages, aur harsh living conditions shamil the.

• Job Seeking aur Networks:
• Countryside se log jobs ki talash mein cities aate the.
• Job milna aksar friendship aur kin relations ke networks par depend karta tha.
• Jinke social connections nahi hote the, unhe weeks tak wait karna padta tha, bridges ke neeche ya night shelters mein sona padta tha.
• Jobber ka Role:
• Industrialists naye recruits ke liye jobber ko employ karte the.
• Jobber apne gaon se logon ko laata tha, unhe job dilata tha, city mein settle hone mein help karta tha, aur crisis mein money provide karta tha.
• Dheere-dheere jobber authority aur power wala person ban gaya, apne favour ke liye money aur gifts demand karne laga, aur workers ki life control karne laga.

• Working Conditions aur Wages:
• Kai industries mein seasonality of work ki wajah se workers ko prolonged periods tak unemployment face karna padta tha.
• Busy season ke baad, poor log phir se streets par aa jaate the.
• Wages early 19th century mein thode badhe, par workers ki welfare ka sahi picture nahi dete the.
• Real Value of Wages: Napoleonic War ke dauran prices badhne se real value of wages gir gayi, kyunki same wages se ab kam cheezein kharid sakte the.
• Employment Period: Workers ki income sirf wage rate par nahi, balki employment period (kitne din kaam mila) par bhi depend karti thi.
• Mid-19th century tak, urban population ka 10% extremely poor tha. Economic slump mein ye figure 35-75% tak pahunch jaata tha.

• Technological Change aur Workers ka Resistance:
• Unemployment ke fear ne workers ko new technology ke khilaf bana diya.
• Spinning Jenny ka Example: Jab Spinning Jenny woollen industry mein introduce hui, to hand spinning par depend karne wali women ne machines par attack kiya.
• Ye conflict kaafi time tak chalta raha.

• 1840s ke baad Employment Opportunities:
• 1840s ke baad cities mein building activity badhi.
• Roads wide hue, railway stations bane, railway lines extend hui, tunnels dug hue, drainage aur sewers lay hue.
• Transport industry mein workers ki sankhya 1840s mein double hui, aur agle 30 saalon mein phir double hui.

Machine industries ke aane se pehle, Indian textiles international market mein dominate karte the, par colonial rule ne is position ko badal diya.

• Pre-Industrial India: Textile Dominance:
• India ke silk aur cotton goods international market mein popular the.
• Coarser cottons kai countries mein bante the, par finer varieties India se aate the.
• Trade Routes:
• Armenian aur Persian merchants goods Punjab se Afghanistan, Eastern Persia, aur Central Asia le jaate the.
• Camel back par bales of fine textiles north-west frontier se mountain passes aur deserts cross karte the.
• Sea Trade: Surat (Gujarat), Masulipatam (Coromandel), Hoogly (Bengal) jaise ports Southeast Asian ports, Gulf, aur Red Sea ports se jude the.
• Indian Merchants aur Bankers ka Role:
• Ye log production finance karte the, goods carry karte the, aur exporters ko supply karte the.
• Supply merchants port towns ko inland regions se connect karte the, weavers ko advances dete the, aur woven cloth collect karte the.
• Big shippers aur export merchants ke paas brokers hote the jo price negotiate karte the.

• Indian Trade Network ka Breakdown:
• 1750s tak: Indian merchants dwara controlled network break down hone laga.
• European Companies ka Rise: European companies ne gradually power gain ki.
• Local courts se concessions liye.
• Trade ke monopoly rights secure kiye.
• Old Ports ka Decline:
• Surat aur Hoogly jaise old ports decline ho gaye.
• Exports dramatically gire, credit dry up ho gaya, local bankers bankrupt ho gaye.
• Example: Surat ka trade value 17th century ke end mein Rs 16 million se 1740s tak Rs 3 million ho gaya.
• New Ports ka Growth: Bombay aur Calcutta jaise new ports grow hue.
• Ye shift colonial power ke growth ka indicator tha.
• New ports se trade European companies dwara control hota tha, aur European ships mein hota tha.
• Indian trading houses ko European companies ke network mein operate karna pada.

• Weavers par East India Company ka Control:
• 1760s ke baad: Company ne textile exports expand karne ki koshish ki, kyunki Indian textiles ki Europe mein demand thi.
• Competition Eliminate karna: Company ne competition eliminate karne, costs control karne, aur regular supplies ensure karne ke liye system banaya:

1. Gomastha ki Appointment: Existing traders aur brokers ko eliminate kiya. Gomastha naam ke paid servant ko weavers ko supervise karne, supplies collect karne, aur cloth ki quality check karne ke liye appoint kiya.
2. Advances System: Company weavers ko loans (advances) deti thi raw material kharidne ke liye.

• Jo loan lete the, unhe apna cloth gomastha ko hi dena hota tha, kisi aur trader ko nahi.
• Weavers ki Durdasha:
• Weavers ko bargain karne ki freedom nahi rahi.
• Company se milne wala price bahut kam tha.
• Loans ne unhe Company se baandh diya.
• Gomasthas ka Atank: Gomasthas outsiders the, unka weavers se koi social link nahi tha. Ve arrogantly behave karte the, sepoys aur peons ke saath gaon mein aate the, aur delays ke liye weavers ko maarte-peette the.
• Kai weavers ne gaon chhod diye, doosre gaon mein jaakar looms set up kiye.
• Kuchh weavers ne loans lene se mana kar diya, workshops band kar diye, aur agricultural labour ban gaye.

• Manchester ka India mein Aana:
• Indian Textile Exports ka Decline: 19th century ke beginning se Indian textile exports mein long decline shuru hua.
• 1811-12 mein piece-goods India ke exports ka 33% the; 1850-51 tak ye sirf 3% reh gaya.
• British Cotton Industries ka Growth: England mein cotton industries develop hui, aur British industrialists ne government par pressure dala:
• Cotton textiles par import duties lagane ke liye, taaki Manchester goods Britain mein competition ke bina bik sakein.
• East India Company ko British manufactures Indian markets mein bechne ke liye persuade kiya.
• British Goods ka Influx: Early 19th century mein British cotton goods ka export India mein dramatically badha.
• 18th century ke end mein India mein cotton piece-goods ka virtually koi import nahi tha.
• 1850 tak, cotton piece-goods India ke imports ka 31% the; 1870s tak ye 50% se zyada ho gaya.
• Indian Weavers ki Double Problem:

1. Unka export market collapse ho gaya.
2. Local market Manchester imports se bhar gaya aur shrink ho gaya.

• Machine-made goods saste the, Indian weavers compete nahi kar paaye.
• Raw Cotton ki Kami: 1860s mein weavers ko good quality raw cotton ki sufficient supply nahi mili.
• American Civil War ke dauran US se cotton supplies cut off hone par Britain India ki taraf muda.
• India se raw cotton exports badhe, jisse raw cotton ke prices shoot up ho gaye.
• Indian weavers ko exorbitant prices par cotton kharidna pada, jisse weaving profitable nahi raha.
• Indian Factories ka Competition: 19th century ke end tak, India mein factories ne production shuru kar diya, jisse market machine-goods se bhar gaya, aur handloom industries ke liye survive karna mushkil ho gaya.

India mein factories ka aana aur industrialisation ka process European control aur Indian entrepreneurs ke efforts ka mix tha.

• Factories ka Aana (Mid-19th Century):
• First Cotton Mill: Bombay mein 1854 mein, production 1856 mein shuru.
• Other Mills:
• 1862 tak Bombay mein 4 mills.
• Jute mills Bengal mein: First 1855 mein, doosra 1862 mein.
• Elgin Mill Kanpur mein 1860s mein.
• First cotton mill Ahmedabad mein 1861 mein.
• Madras mein first spinning aur weaving mill 1874 mein.

• Early Entrepreneurs: Capital aur Sources:
• China Trade: Kai business groups ka history China trade se juda tha.
• British India se opium China export karte the aur China se tea England le jaate the.
• Indians is trade mein junior players the (finance, supplies, shipping).
• Is trade se paisa kama kar kaiyon ne industrial enterprises mein invest kiya.
• Prominent Indian Industrialists:
• Dwarkanath Tagore (Bengal): China trade se fortune banayi, 1830s-40s mein 6 joint-stock companies set up ki. (Though his enterprises sank in 1840s crisis, many China traders later became successful).
• Parsis (Bombay): Dinshaw Petit aur Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata ne initial wealth China exports aur raw cotton shipments to England se banayi.
• Seth Hukumchand (Marwari): Calcutta mein first Indian jute mill (1917) set up kiya, China ke saath trade karte the.
• G.D. Birla ke ancestors: China ke saath trade karte the.
• Other Trade Networks:
• Madras ke merchants Burma, Middle East, aur East Africa se trade karte the.
• Kuchh groups internal trade mein the (goods carry karna, banking, funds transfer, financing traders).
• Colonial Control ka Impact:
• Indian merchants ke liye space limited ho gaya.
• Europe ke saath manufactured goods mein trade karne se roka gaya.
• Mostly raw materials aur food grains (cotton, opium, wheat, indigo) export karne pade, jo British ko chahiye the.
• Shipping business se bhi edge out kar diye gaye.

• European Managing Agencies:
• First World War tak, European Managing Agencies ne Indian industries ke bade sector ko control kiya.
• Examples: Bird Heiglers & Co., Andrew Yule, Jardine Skinner & Co.
• Ye agencies capital mobilise karti thi, joint-stock companies set up karti thi, aur manage karti thi.
• Indian financiers capital provide karte the, par investment aur business decisions European Agencies leti thi.
• European merchant-industrialists ke apne Chambers of Commerce the, jisme Indian businessmen ko allow nahi kiya jaata tha.

• Workers kahan se Aate the?
• Factories ke expansion ke saath workers ki demand badhi.
• 1901 mein 584,000 workers the, 1946 tak 2,436,000 se zyada ho gaye.
• Source of Workers:
• Mostly neighbouring districts se aate the (e.g., Bombay cotton industries mein 1911 mein 50% workers Ratnagiri se the).
• Kanpur mills ko workers ussi district ke gaon se milte the.
• Workers aksar gaon aur city ke beech move karte the, harvests aur festivals par gaon lautte the.
• Employment ki news failne par, workers door-door se aate the (e.g., United Provinces se Bombay aur Calcutta ke mills mein).
• Job Scarcity: Jobs milna hamesha difficult tha, kyunki jobs se zyada log kaam dhoondh rahe the.
• Jobber ka System: Jobber naye recruits laata tha, unhe job dilata tha, settle karta tha, aur crisis mein help karta tha. Isse use authority aur power mili, aur usne favour ke liye money demand karna shuru kar diya.

India mein industrial growth ka pattern unique tha, jisme small-scale production ka predominance aur marketing ke liye cultural symbols ka use shamil tha.

• Industrial Growth ki Peculiarities:
• European Agencies ka Focus: European Managing Agencies export trade ke liye products mein interested the (tea, coffee plantations, mining, indigo, jute).
• Ye products primarily export ke liye the, India mein sale ke liye nahi.
• Indian Businessmen ki Strategy:
• Late 19th century mein Indian businessmen ne Manchester goods se compete karne se avoid kiya.
• Early cotton mills ne coarse cotton yarn produce kiya, fabric nahi.
• Ye yarn handloom weavers India mein use karte the ya China export karte the.
• 20th Century mein Badlav:
• Swadeshi Movement: Nationalists ne foreign cloth boycott karne ke liye logon ko mobilize kiya.
• Industrial groups ne tariff protection aur concessions ke liye government par pressure dala.
• China Export Decline: 1906 ke baad Indian yarn ka China export gira, kyunki Chinese aur Japanese mills ne market flood kar diya.
• Indian industrialists ne yarn se cloth production ki taraf shift kiya.
• 1900-1912 ke beech cotton piece-goods production double ho gaya.
• First World War ka Impact:
• War ke dauran British mills war production mein busy ho gaye, Manchester imports India mein kam ho gaye.
• Indian mills ko vast home market mila.
• Indian factories ne war needs (jute bags, uniforms, tents, leather boots) supply ki.
• New factories bane, old ones multiple shifts mein chale, workers ko longer hours kaam karna pada.
• Industrial production boom hua.

• War ke Baad ka Scenario:
• Manchester apni old position India mein never recapture kar paya.
• Britain ki economy crumble ho gayi, cotton production aur exports gire.
• Indian industrialists ne foreign manufactures ko substitute kiya aur home market capture kiya.

• Small-scale Industries ka Predominance:
• War ke baad factory industries badhi, par economy ka small segment thi.
• 1911 mein 67% large industries Bengal aur Bombay mein thi.
• Country ke baaki hisse mein small-scale production predominate karta raha.
• Total industrial labour force ka small proportion hi registered factories mein kaam karta tha (1911 mein 5%, 1931 mein 10%).
• Baaki workers small workshops aur household units mein kaam karte the.
• Handicrafts Production ka Expansion: 20th century mein handicrafts production, specially handloom sector, actually expand hua.
• 1900-1940 ke beech handloom cloth production almost trebled.
• Technological Changes: Handicrafts people ne new technology adopt ki (e.g., fly shuttle), jisse production improve hua aur costs zyada nahi badhe.
• 1941 tak 35% se zyada handlooms fly shuttles se fitted the (kuchh regions mein 70-80%).
• Weavers ki Survival Strategies:
• Finer varieties of cloth banane wale weavers (Banarasi, Baluchari saris) zyada stable the, kyunki rich log unhe kharidte the, even in famines.
• Mills specialised weaves ko imitate nahi kar sakte the (e.g., woven borders, Madras lungis).
• Weavers ki life hard thi, par ve factories ke age mein past times ke remnants nahi the, balki industrialisation process ka integral part the.

• Market for Goods: Advertising ka Role:
• New products ko sell karne ke liye consumers ko persuade karna zaroori tha.
• Advertisements ka Mahatva:
• Advertisements products ko desirable aur necessary banate hain, new needs create karte hain.
• Industrial age ke shuru se hi advertisements ne markets expand karne aur new consumer culture shape karne mein role play kiya.
• Manchester Labels:
• Manchester industrialists India mein cloth sell karte waqt labels lagate the.
• Label par 'MADE IN MANCHESTER' likha hota tha, jo quality ka mark tha.
• Labels par Indian gods aur goddesses ki images hoti thi (Krishna, Saraswati), jo goods ko divine approval deti thi aur foreign product ko familiar banati thi.
• Calendars:
• Late 19th century mein manufacturers calendars print karte the products ko popularise karne ke liye.
• Calendars un logon dwara bhi use hote the jo read nahi kar sakte the, aur saal bhar advertisement dikhate the.
• Inme bhi gods, emperors, aur nawabs ki figures use hoti thi, product ko respect aur royal association dene ke liye.
• Nationalist Message:
• Indian manufacturers ne advertisements mein nationalist message use kiya.
• Swadeshi ka sandesh diya: 'Agar aap nation ki care karte ho, to Indian products kharido.'