RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Resources woh sab cheezein hain jo hamare environment mein available hain aur jinse hamari needs poori hoti hain. But, iske liye kuch conditions hain:

• Technologically Accessible: Unhe use karne ke liye technology honi chahiye.
• Economically Feasible: Unhe use karna financially possible hona chahiye.
• Culturally Acceptable: Society unke use ko accept kare.

संसाधनों का वर्गीकरण (Classification of Resources)

Resources ko alag-alag bases par classify kiya ja sakta hai:

1. उत्पत्ति के आधार पर (On the Basis of Origin):

• जैविक संसाधन (Biotic Resources): Living things se milte hain. Example: Humans, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock.
• अजैविक संसाधन (Abiotic Resources): Non-living things se milte hain. Example: Rocks, metals, water, air.

1. समाप्यता के आधार पर (On the Basis of Exhaustibility):

• नवीकरणीय संसाधन (Renewable Resources): Jinhe physical, chemical ya mechanical processes se renew ya reproduce kiya ja sakta hai. Example: Solar energy, wind energy, water, forests, wildlife.
• Continuous or Flow: Wind, water.
• Biological: Forests, wildlife.
• अनवीकरणीय संसाधन (Non-Renewable Resources): Jinhe renew hone mein millions of years lagte hain. Ek baar use ho gaye toh khatam ho jaate hain. Example: Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum), minerals.
• Recyclable: Metals.
• Non-recyclable: Fossil fuels.

1. स्वामित्व के आधार पर (On the Basis of Ownership):

• व्यक्तिगत संसाधन (Individual Resources): Private individuals ke owned hote hain. Example: Plots, houses, plantations, wells.
• सामुदायिक स्वामित्व वाले संसाधन (Community-Owned Resources): Community ke sabhi members ke liye accessible hote hain. Example: Village ponds, public parks, playgrounds, burial grounds.
• राष्ट्रीय संसाधन (National Resources): Country ke andar ke saare resources. Government ke paas power hoti hai private property ko public good ke liye acquire karne ki. Example: Roads, railways, canals, minerals, water resources, forests, wildlife, ocean area up to 12 nautical miles (territorial water).
• अंतर्राष्ट्रीय संसाधन (International Resources): International institutions regulate karte hain. Example: Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) se beyond open ocean resources.

1. विकास के स्तर के आधार पर (On the Basis of Status of Development):

• संभाव्य संसाधन (Potential Resources): Jo kisi region mein exist karte hain but abhi tak fully utilize nahi hue hain. Example: Rajasthan aur Gujarat mein wind aur solar energy ka potential.
• विकसित संसाधन (Developed Resources): Jinhe survey kiya ja chuka hai aur unki quantity aur quality determine ho chuki hai for utilization. Inka development technology aur feasibility par depend karta hai.
• भंडार (Stock): Resources jo human needs ko satisfy kar sakte hain but unhe access karne ke liye appropriate technology nahi hai. Example: Water (H2O) hydrogen aur oxygen ka compound hai, jo energy source ho sakta hai, but abhi tak technology nahi hai.
• संचित कोष (Reserves): Stock ka sub-set, jinhe existing technology se use kiya ja sakta hai but unka use future ke liye save kiya gaya hai. Example: River water for future hydro-electric power generation.

Resources human survival aur quality of life maintain karne ke liye bahut important hain. Pehle log sochte the ki resources free gifts hain nature ke, but is indiscriminate use se bahut problems create hui hain:

• संसाधनों का ह्रास (Depletion of Resources): Kuch individuals ki greed ke liye resources ka over-exploitation.
• संसाधनों का संचय (Accumulation of Resources): Resources kuch hi logon ke haath mein concentrate ho gaye, jisse society 'haves' aur 'have-nots' mein divide ho gayi (rich aur poor).
• पर्यावरणीय संकट (Global Ecological Crises): Indiscriminate exploitation se global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution aur land degradation jaise problems badh gaye.

सतत पोषणीय विकास (Sustainable Development)

Ek equitable distribution of resources bahut zaroori hai sustained quality of life aur global peace ke liye. Agar yahi trend chalta raha toh hamare planet ka future danger mein hai.

• Meaning: Sustainable economic development ka matlab hai ki development aisa ho jo environment ko damage na kare, aur present generation ki needs ko poora karte hue future generations ki needs se compromise na kare.

रियो डी जनेरियो पृथ्वी सम्मेलन, 1992 (Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992)

• Kab aur Kahan: June 1992 mein, 100 se zyada heads of states Brazil ke Rio de Janeiro mein mile.
• Kyun: Environmental protection aur socio-economic development ke urgent global problems ko address karne ke liye.
• Outcome:
• Declaration on Global Climatic Change aur Biological Diversity sign kiya gaya.
• Global Forest Principles ko endorse kiya gaya.
• एजेंडा 21 (Agenda 21) ko adopt kiya gaya for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century.

एजेंडा 21 (Agenda 21)

• Kya Hai: Ek declaration jo 1992 mein United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) mein world leaders ne sign kiya tha, Rio de Janeiro mein.
• Aim: Global sustainable development achieve karna.
• Objectives: Environmental damage, poverty, disease se ladna global co-operation, common interests, mutual needs aur shared responsibilities ke through.
• Key Feature: Har local government ko apna local Agenda 21 banana chahiye.

संसाधन नियोजन (Resource Planning)

Resources ka judicious use karne ke liye planning bahut zaroori hai. India jaise country mein jahan resources ki diversity bahut zyada hai, wahan resource planning ki bahut importance hai.

• India mein Resource Planning ka Process:

1. संसाधनों की पहचान और सूची बनाना (Identification and inventory of resources): Country ke alag-alag regions mein resources ko survey karna, mapping karna, aur unki qualitative aur quantitative estimation aur measurement karna.
2. योजना संरचना विकसित करना (Evolving a planning structure): Appropriate technology, skill aur institutional set up develop karna resource development plans ko implement karne ke liye.
3. विकास योजनाओं का मिलान (Matching development plans): Resource development plans ko overall national development plans ke saath match karna.

• संसाधनों का संरक्षण (Conservation of Resources): Resources har developmental activity ke liye vital hain. But unka irrational consumption aur over-utilisation socio-economic aur environmental problems create karta hai. In problems ko overcome karne ke liye resource conservation bahut important hai.
• Gandhiji ka Vichar: "There is enough for everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed." Unhone greedy individuals aur modern technology ke exploitative nature ko resource depletion ka root cause bataya. Woh mass production ke against the aur 'production by the masses' ko support karte the.
• International Level Efforts:
• 1968: Club of Rome ne resource conservation ko systematically advocate kiya.
• 1974: Schumacher ne apni book 'Small is Beautiful' mein Gandhian philosophy ko dobara present kiya.
• 1987: Brundtland Commission Report ne 'Sustainable Development' ka concept introduce kiya aur resource conservation ke liye advocate kiya. Ye report 'Our Common Future' book mein publish hui.
• 1992: Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit mein bhi resource conservation par focus kiya gaya.

Land ek bahut important natural resource hai kyunki hum is par rehte hain, economic activities karte hain, aur isse natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, transport aur communication systems support hote hain. Land ek finite asset hai, isliye iska careful planning ke saath use karna zaroori hai.

भारत में भूमि के विभिन्न भू-आकृतियाँ (Land under various Relief Features in India)

India mein land alag-alag relief features ke under hai:

• मैदान (Plains): Total land area ka 43%. Agriculture aur industry ke liye suitable.
• पहाड़ (Mountains): Total surface area ka 30%. Perennial rivers ka source, tourism aur ecological aspects ke liye important.
• पठार (Plateaus): Country ke area ka 27%. Minerals, fossil fuels aur forests ke rich reserves hote hain.

भूमि उपयोग (Land Utilisation)

Land resources ko alag-alag purposes ke liye use kiya jata hai:

1. वन (Forests): Jangal ke under area.
2. कृषि के लिए अनुपलब्ध भूमि (Land not available for cultivation):

• बंजर और व्यर्थ भूमि (Barren and waste land): Rocky, arid aur desert areas.
• गैर-कृषि उपयोग में लगाई गई भूमि (Land put to non-agricultural uses): Buildings, roads, factories, etc.

1. अन्य अकृष्य भूमि (Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)):

• स्थायी चारागाह (Permanent pastures and grazing land): Pashuon ke charne ke liye.
• विविध वृक्षों, फसलों और उपवनों के अधीन भूमि (Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves): Net sown area mein include nahi hota.
• कृषि योग्य बंजर भूमि (Culturable waste land): 5 agricultural years se zyada time tak uncultivated chodi gayi land.

1. परती भूमि (Fallow lands):

• वर्तमान परती (Current fallow): Ek ya ek saal se kam time ke liye bina cultivation ke chodi gayi land.
• पुरातन परती (Other than current fallow): 1 se 5 agricultural years tak bina cultivation ke chodi gayi land.

1. शुद्ध बोया गया क्षेत्र (Net Sown Area): Woh physical extent of land jahan crops sow aur harvest ki jaati hain.

• सकल फसली क्षेत्र (Gross Cropped Area): Net sown area + Area sown more than once in an agricultural year.

भारत में भू-उपयोग प्रतिरूप (Land Use Pattern in India)

Land use pattern ko physical factors (topography, climate, soil types) aur human factors (population density, technological capability, culture aur traditions) dono determine karte hain.

• Total Geographical Area: India ka total geographical area 3.28 million sq km hai.
• Data Availability: Land use data sirf 93% area ke liye available hai, kyunki North-East states (Assam ko chhodkar) aur Pakistan/China occupied J&K ke kuch areas ka survey nahi hua hai.
• Forest Area: Country mein forest area National Forest Policy (1952) ke desired 33% geographical area se bahut kam hai. Ye ecological balance maintain karne ke liye essential hai.
• Waste Land: Rocky, arid aur desert areas. Non-agricultural uses mein settlements, roads, railways, industry aate hain.
• Continuous land use without conservation se land degradation hua hai, jiske serious repercussions hain society aur environment par.

Land degradation ka matlab hai land ki quality ka kam hona. Hamari basic needs (food, shelter, clothing) ka 95% land se hi aata hai. Human activities ne land degradation ko badhaya hai.

भूमि निम्नीकरण के कारण (Causes of Land Degradation)

1. वनोन्मूलन (Deforestation): Pedon ko kaatne se soil erosion badhta hai. Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh aur Odisha mein mining ke karan deforestation se severe land degradation hua hai.
2. अति-पशुचारण (Overgrazing): Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh aur Maharashtra mein overgrazing land degradation ka main reason hai.
3. खनन (Mining) और उत्खनन (Quarrying): Mining sites ko abandon karne se deep scars aur overburdening ke traces reh jaate hain.
4. अति-सिंचाई (Over-irrigation): Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh mein over-irrigation se waterlogging hoti hai, jisse soil mein salinity aur alkalinity badhti hai.
5. खनिज प्रसंस्करण (Mineral Processing): Limestone grinding (cement industry) aur calcite/soapstone (ceramic industry) se bahut dust generate hoti hai. Ye dust land par settle hokar water infiltration ko kam karti hai.
6. औद्योगिक अपशिष्ट (Industrial Effluents and Waste): Industrial effluents aur waste se land aur water pollution hota hai.

भूमि संरक्षण के उपाय (Conservation Measures for Land Degradation)

Land degradation ki problems ko solve karne ke liye kai tarike hain:

1. वनारोपण (Afforestation): Zyada se zyada ped lagana.
2. चारागाहों का उचित प्रबंधन (Proper management of grazing): Overgrazing ko control karna.
3. रक्षक मेखला (Shelter belts): Plants ki lines lagana, especially arid areas mein, wind ki force ko kam karne ke liye.
4. रेतीले टीलों का स्थिरीकरण (Stabilisation of sand dunes): Thorny bushes laga kar sand dunes ko stabilize karna.
5. बंजर भूमि का उचित प्रबंधन (Proper management of waste lands): Waste lands ko productive banana.
6. खनन गतिविधियों पर नियंत्रण (Control of mining activities): Mining ko regulate karna.
7. औद्योगिक अपशिष्टों का उचित निस्तारण (Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes): Treatment ke baad hi industrial waste ko dispose karna.

Ye measures land aur water degradation ko industrial aur suburban areas mein kam kar sakte hain.

Soil sabse important natural resource hai. Ye plant growth ka medium hai aur earth par different types ke living organisms ko support karti hai. Soil formation mein millions of years lagte hain.

मृदा निर्माण के कारक (Factors of Soil Formation)

• उच्चावच (Relief): Upar-neeche ka structure.
• जनक शैल या आधार शैल (Parent rock or bedrock): Jis rock se soil banti hai.
• जलवायु (Climate): Temperature, rainfall, etc.
• वनस्पति (Vegetation): Plants aur trees.
• अन्य जीव रूप (Other forms of life): Micro-organisms, insects.
• समय (Time): Soil formation mein lagne wala time.

Natural forces jaise temperature changes, running water, wind, glaciers, aur decomposers ki activities bhi soil formation mein contribute karti hain. Chemical aur organic changes bhi equally important hain. Soil mein organic (humus) aur inorganic materials hote hain.

भारत में मृदाओं का वर्गीकरण (Classification of Soils in India)

India mein soils ko unke formation factors, colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical aur physical properties ke basis par classify kiya gaya hai. India mein varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms aur vegetation types hain, jiske karan alag-alag types ki soils develop hui hain.

1. जलोढ़ मृदा (Alluvial Soils)

• Distribution: Sabse zyada spread aur important soil. Poora Northern Plains (Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra rivers dwara deposit ki gayi) alluvial soil se bana hai. Rajasthan aur Gujarat mein bhi narrow corridor mein extend karti hai. Eastern coastal plains (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri deltas) mein bhi milti hai.
• Composition: Sand, silt aur clay ka mixture. River valleys ke andar jaane par soil particles bade hote jaate hain. Upper reaches mein (break of slope ke paas) coarse soils hoti hain, jaise Duars, Chos aur Terai mein.
• Age-based Classification:
• बांगर (Bangar): Old alluvial soil. Higher concentration of kanker nodules. Less fertile.
• खादर (Khadar): New alluvial soil. More fine particles. More fertile.
• Fertility: Overall bahut fertile hoti hain. Potash, phosphoric acid aur lime adequate proportion mein hote hain, jo sugarcane, paddy, wheat aur other cereal/pulse crops ke liye ideal hain.
• Population: High fertility ke karan ye regions intensively cultivated aur densely populated hain.
• Dry Areas: Dry areas mein alkaline hoti hain, proper treatment aur irrigation se productive ban sakti hain.

2. काली मृदा (Black Soil / Regur Soil)

• Colour: Black. Isliye isse Regur Soil bhi kehte hain.
• Crops: Cotton growing ke liye ideal hai, isliye Black Cotton Soil bhi kehte hain.
• Formation: Climatic conditions aur parent rock material (Deccan trap - Basalt) important factors hain. Lava flows se banti hai.
• Distribution: Northwest Deccan plateau (Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh) aur Godavari aur Krishna valleys ke south-east direction mein extend karti hai.
• Composition: Extremely fine, clayey material.
• Properties:
• High moisture holding capacity.
• Rich in soil nutrients: Calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash aur lime.
• Phosphoric contents mein poor hoti hai.
• Hot weather mein deep cracks develop karti hai, jo soil aeration mein help karta hai.
• Wet hone par sticky hoti hai, isliye first shower ya pre-monsoon period mein immediately tilling zaroori hai.

3. लाल और पीली मृदा (Red and Yellow Soils)

• Formation: Crystalline igneous rocks par develop hoti hai, low rainfall areas mein (eastern aur southern parts of Deccan plateau).
• Distribution: Odisha, Chhattisgarh, middle Ganga plain ke southern parts aur Western Ghats ke piedmont zone mein bhi milti hai.
• Colour: Red colour iron ke diffusion ke karan crystalline aur metamorphic rocks mein. Hydrated form mein yellow dikhti hai.

4. लेटराइट मृदा (Laterite Soil)

• Origin of Name: Latin word 'later' se derived, jiska matlab hai 'brick'.
• Formation: Tropical aur subtropical climate mein alternate wet aur dry season mein develop hoti hai. Heavy rain ke karan intense leaching ka result hai.
• Properties:
• Deep to very deep.
• Acidic (pH < 6.0).
• Generally deficient in plant nutrients.
• Humus rich hoti hai jahan deciduous aur evergreen forests hote hain, but sparse vegetation aur semi-arid environment mein humus poor hoti hai.
• Erosion aur degradation prone hoti hai.
• Distribution: Southern states, Maharashtra ka Western Ghats region, Odisha, West Bengal ke kuch parts aur North-east regions.
• Crops: Appropriate soil conservation techniques ke baad (especially hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) tea aur coffee ke liye useful. Red laterite soils (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala) cashew nut ke liye suitable hain.

5. शुष्क मृदा (Arid Soils)

• Colour: Red se brown tak.
• Texture: Sandy.
• Nature: Saline. Kuch areas mein salt content bahut high hota hai, jisse common salt obtain kiya jata hai by evaporating water.
• Properties: Dry climate, high temperature, aur faster evaporation ke karan humus aur moisture ki kami hoti hai.
• Kankar Layer: Lower horizons mein Kankar nodules hote hain due to increasing calcium content downwards. Ye Kankar layer water infiltration ko restrict karti hai.
• Cultivability: Proper irrigation ke baad cultivable ban sakti hain, jaise western Rajasthan mein.

6. वन मृदा (Forest Soils)

• Distribution: Hilly aur mountainous areas mein milti hain jahan sufficient rain forests hote hain.
• Texture: Mountain environment ke according vary karti hai.
• Valley sides mein loamy aur silty.
• Upper slopes mein coarse grained.
• Properties:
• Snow-covered areas (Himalayas) mein denudation experience karti hain aur acidic hoti hain with low humus content.
• Valleys ke lower parts mein (river terraces aur alluvial fans par) fertile hoti hain.

Soil erosion ka matlab hai soil cover ka denudation aur uska subsequent washing down. Soil formation aur erosion processes simultaneously chalte hain aur generally inke beech balance hota hai. Lekin, human activities aur natural forces is balance ko disturb kar dete hain.

मृदा अपरदन के कारण (Causes of Soil Erosion)

1. मानवीय गतिविधियाँ (Human Activities):

• वनोन्मूलन (Deforestation): Pedon ko kaatne se soil loose ho jaati hai.
• अति-पशुचारण (Over-grazing): Grazing se vegetation cover remove ho jaata hai, soil exposed ho jaati hai.
• निर्माण (Construction) और खनन (Mining): In activities se soil structure disturb hota hai.

1. प्राकृतिक बल (Natural Forces):

• पवन (Wind): Loose soil ko uda le jaati hai.
• हिमनद (Glacier): Soil ko erode karti hai.
• जल (Water): Running water soil erosion ka major agent hai.

जल द्वारा मृदा अपरदन के प्रकार (Types of Soil Erosion by Water)

• अपरदन (Gully Erosion): Running water clayey soils ko kaat kar deep channels banata hai, jinhe गुलियां (Gullies) kehte hain. Ye land cultivation ke liye unfit ho jaati hai aur खराब भूमि (Bad Land) kehlati hai. Chambal basin mein in guliyon ko खड्ड (Ravines) kehte hain.
• चादर अपरदन (Sheet Erosion): Jab water large areas par slope ke neeche sheet ki tarah flow karta hai, toh top soil wash away ho jaati hai. Ye sheet erosion hai.

पवन अपरदन (Wind Erosion)

• Wind flat ya sloping land se loose soil ko uda le jaati hai.

खेती के दोषपूर्ण तरीके (Defective Methods of Farming)

• Slope ke upar aur neeche ploughing karne se water ke quick flow ke liye channels ban jaate hain, jisse soil erosion hota hai.

मृदा संरक्षण के उपाय (Soil Conservation Measures)

Soil erosion ko control karne ke liye kai methods hain:

1. समोच्च जुताई (Contour Ploughing): Contour lines ke along ploughing karne se slope ke neeche water ka flow decelerate hota hai.
2. सीढ़ीदार कृषि (Terrace Cultivation): Slopes par steps cut karna (terraces banana) erosion ko restrict karta hai. Western aur central Himalayas mein ye common hai.
3. पट्टी कृषि (Strip Cropping): Large fields ko strips mein divide karna aur crops ke beech grass ki strips grow karna. Ye wind ki force ko break karta hai.
4. रक्षक मेखला (Shelter Belts): Pedon ki lines lagana shelter create karne ke liye. Ye sand dunes ko stabilize karne aur western India mein desert ko stabilize karne mein significant role play karte hain.